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<title>Air (classical element)</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Air (classical element)</span></span>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:20em"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="Classical_element" title="Classical element">Classical elements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div style="width: 33%"><a href="Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">Water</a></div><div style="width: 33%"><a href="Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">Aether</a></div><div style="width: 33%"><a href="Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">Fire</a></div>

</div>

<a href="Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">Earth</a></div></div></td>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Tattva" title="Tattva">Hinduism</a> / <a href="Tattva_(Jainism)" title="Tattva (Jainism)">Jainism</a> / <a href="Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">Buddhism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #eee;"><a href="Vayu" title="Vayu">Vayu</a>

<div style="width: 33%"><a href="Ap_(water)" title="Ap (water)">Ap</a></div><div style="width: 33%"><a href="Akasha" title="Akasha">Akasha</a></div><div style="width: 33%"><a href="Agni" title="Agni">Agni</a></div>

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<a href="Prithvi" title="Prithvi">Prithvi</a></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Chinese</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #eee;"><a href="Wood_(wuxing)" title="Wood (wuxing)">Wood</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">木</span></span>)

<div style="width: 33%"><a href="Water_(wuxing)" title="Water (wuxing)">Water</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">水</span></span>)</div><div style="width: 33%"></div><div style="width: 33%"><a href="Fire_(wuxing)" title="Fire (wuxing)">Fire</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">火</span></span>)</div>

<div style="width: 20%"></div><div style="width:25%;"><a href="Metal_(wuxing)" title="Metal (wuxing)">Metal</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">金</span></span>)</div><div style="width:10%;"></div><div style="width:25%;"><a href="Earth_(wuxing)" title="Earth (wuxing)">Earth</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">土</span></span>)</div><div style="width: 20%"></div>

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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Godai_(Japanese_philosophy)" title="Godai (Japanese philosophy)">Japanese</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #eee;">Wind (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">風</span></span>)

<div style="width: 33%">Water (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">水</span></span>)</div><div style="width: 33%"><a href="The_Void_(philosophy)" title="The Void (philosophy)">Void</a> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">空</span></span>)</div><div style="width: 33%">Fire (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">火</span></span>)</div>

</div>

Earth (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">地</span></span>)</div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="Classical_element#Elements_in_Medieval_alchemy" title="Classical element">European alchemy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color: #eee;"><div style="padding: 0.5em 0; display: grid; grid: auto / 1fr 1fr 1fr; grid-template-areas: '. air .' 'water aether fire' '. earth .' 'sulphur mercury salt'">

<div style="grid-area: water"><span class="nowrap"><a href="Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">Water</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)"></a></span></span></div>

<div style="grid-area: aether"><span class="nowrap"><a href="Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">Aether</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)"></a></span></span></div>

<div style="grid-area: earth"><span class="nowrap"><a href="Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">Earth</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)"></a></span></span></div>

<div style="grid-area: sulphur"><span class="nowrap"><a href="Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulphur</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Sulfur" title="Sulfur"></a></span></span></div>

<div style="grid-area: mercury"><span class="nowrap"><a href="Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury</a><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)"></a></span></span></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the classical element. For other uses of the term, see <a href="Air_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Air (disambiguation)">Air (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Air</b> or <b>Wind</b> is one of the four <a href="Classical_element" title="Classical element">classical elements</a> along with <a href="Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">water</a>, <a href="Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">earth</a> and <a href="Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">fire</a> in ancient <a href="Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> and in Western <a href="Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Greek_and_Roman_tradition">Greek and Roman tradition</h2></div>

<p>According to <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, it is associated with the <a href="Octahedron" title="Octahedron">octahedron</a>; air is considered to be both hot and wet. The ancient Greeks used two words for air: <i>aer</i> meant the dim lower atmosphere, and <i><a href="Aether_(mythology)" title="Aether (mythology)">aether</a></i> meant the bright upper atmosphere above the clouds.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, for instance writes that "So it is with air: there is the brightest variety which we call <i>aether</i>, the muddiest which we call mist and darkness, and other kinds for which we have no name...."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the early Greek <a href="Pre-Socratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratic">Pre-Socratic</a> philosophers, <a href="Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a> (mid-6th century BCE) named air as the <i><a href="Arche" class="mw-redirect" title="Arche">arche</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar belief was attributed by some ancient sources to <a href="Diogenes_Apolloniates" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Apolloniates">Diogenes Apolloniates</a> (late 5th century BCE), who also linked air with intelligence and soul (<i>psyche</i>), but other sources claim that his <i>arche</i> was a substance between air and fire.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a> parodied such teachings in his play <i><a href="The_Clouds" title="The Clouds">The Clouds</a></i> by putting a prayer to air in the mouth of <a href="Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>.

</p><p>Air was one of many <i>archai</i> proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. However, <a href="Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> of Acragas (c. 495-c. 435 BCE) selected four <i>archai</i> for his four roots: air, fire, water, and earth. Ancient and modern opinions differ as to whether he identified air by the divine name <a href="Hera" title="Hera">Hera</a>, <a href="Hades" title="Hades">Aidoneus</a> or even <a href="Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>. Empedocles’ roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (427–347 BCE) took over the four elements of Empedocles. In the <i><a href="Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>, his major cosmological dialogue, the <a href="Platonic_solid" title="Platonic solid">Platonic solid</a> associated with air is the <a href="Octahedron" title="Octahedron">octahedron</a> which is formed from eight equilateral triangles. This places air between fire and water which Plato regarded as appropriate because it is intermediate in its mobility, sharpness, and ability to penetrate. He also said of air that its minuscule components are so smooth that one can barely feel them.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Plato's student <a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the universe to form the <a href="Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">sublunary sphere</a>. According to Aristotle, air is both hot and wet and occupies a place between fire and water among the elemental spheres. Aristotle definitively separated air from <a href="Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">aether</a>. For him, aether was an unchanging, almost divine substance that was found only in the heavens, where it formed <a href="Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">celestial spheres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humorism_and_temperaments">Humorism and temperaments</h3></div>

<td><b>Humour</b>

</td>

<td><b>Season</b>

</td>

</td>

<td><b>Element</b>

</td>

<td><b>Organ</b>

</td>

<td><b>Qualities</b>

</td>

<td><b>Temperament</b>

</td></tr>

<td>Blood

</td>

<td>spring

</td>

<td>infancy

</td>

<td>air

</td>

<td><a href="Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>

</td>

<td>moist and warm

</td>

<td><a href="Four_Temperaments" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Temperaments">sanguine</a>

</td></tr>

<td>Yellow bile

</td>

<td>summer

</td>

<td>youth

</td>

</td>

<td><a href="Gallbladder" title="Gallbladder">gallbladder</a>

</td>

<td>warm and dry

</td>

<td><a href="Choleric" class="mw-redirect" title="Choleric">choleric</a>

</td></tr>

<td>Black bile

</td>

<td>autumn

</td>

<td>adulthood

</td>

<td><a href="Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">earth</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Spleen" title="Spleen">spleen</a>

</td>

<td>dry and cold

</td>

<td><a href="Melancholia" title="Melancholia">melancholic</a>

</td></tr>

<td>Phlegm

</td>

<td>winter

</td>

<td>old age

</td>

<td><a href="Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">water</a>

</td>

<td><a href="Human_brain" title="Human brain">brain</a>/<a href="Lungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lungs">lungs</a>

</td>

<td>cold and moist

</td>

<td><a href="Phlegmatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlegmatic">phlegmatic</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>In <a href="Medicine_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in ancient Greece">ancient Greek medicine</a>, each of the <a href="Four_humours" class="mw-redirect" title="Four humours">four humours</a> became associated with an element. <a href="Blood" title="Blood">Blood</a> was the humor identified with air, since both were hot and wet. Other things associated with air and blood in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of <a href="Spring_(season)" title="Spring (season)">spring</a>, since it increased the qualities of heat and moisture; the sanguine temperament (of a person dominated by the blood humour); <a href="Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodite</a> (combining the masculine quality of heat with the feminine quality of moisture); and the northern point of the compass.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alchemy">Alchemy</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="Alchemical_symbol" title="Alchemical symbol">alchemical symbol</a> for air is an upward-pointing triangle, bisected by a horizontal line.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_reception">Modern reception</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</a>, founded in 1888, incorporates air and the other Greek classical elements into its teachings.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Magical_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Magical weapon">elemental weapon</a> of air is the dagger which must be painted yellow with magical names and sigils written upon it in violet.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of air is <a href="Raphael_(archangel)" title="Raphael (archangel)">Raphael</a>, the angel is Chassan, the ruler is Ariel, the king is Paralda, and the air <a href="Elemental" title="Elemental">elementals</a> (following <a href="Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a>) are called <a href="Sylph" title="Sylph">sylphs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Air is considerable and it is referred to the upper left point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community.

</p><p>In the Golden Dawn and many other magical systems, each element is associated with one of the <a href="Cardinal_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal point">cardinal points</a> and is placed under the care of guardian Watchtowers. The Watchtowers derive from the <a href="Enochian_magic" title="Enochian magic">Enochian system of magic</a> founded by Dee. In the Golden Dawn, they are represented by the Enochian elemental tablets.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Air is associated with the east, which is guarded by the First Watchtower.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Air is one of the five elements that appear in most <a href="Wicca" title="Wicca">Wiccan</a> and Pagan traditions. <a href="Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a> in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic and <a href="Aleister_Crowley" title="Aleister Crowley">Aleister Crowley</a>'s mysticism.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parallels_in_non-Western_traditions">Parallels in non-Western traditions</h2></div>

<p>Air is not one of the traditional five <a href="Five_elements_(Chinese_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five elements (Chinese philosophy)">Chinese classical elements</a>. Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese concept of <i><a href="Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></i> or <i>chi</i> is believed to be close to that of air. <i>Qi</i> is believed to be part of every living thing that exists, as a kind of "<a href="Vitalism" title="Vitalism">life force</a>" or "<a href="Energy_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy (spirituality)">spiritual energy</a>". It is frequently translated as "energy flow", or literally as "air" or "breath". (For example, <i>tiānqì</i>, literally "sky breath", is the Chinese word for "<a href="Weather" title="Weather">weather</a>"). The concept of qi is often <a href="Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">reified</a>, however no scientific evidence supports its existence.

</p><p>The element air also appears as a concept in the <a href="Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> philosophy which has an ancient history in China.

</p><p>Some Western modern occultists equate the <a href="Five_elements_(Chinese_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five elements (Chinese philosophy)">Chinese classical element</a> of <a href="Metal_(classical_element)" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal (classical element)">metal</a> with <i>air</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others with <a href="Wood_(Wu_Xing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood (Wu Xing)">wood</a> due to the elemental association of wind and wood in the <a href="Bagua" title="Bagua">bagua</a>.

</p><p><a href="Enlil" title="Enlil">Enlil</a> was the god of air in ancient <a href="Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>. <a href="Shu_(Egyptian_deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shu (Egyptian deity)">Shu</a> was the <a href="Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> <a href="Ancient_Egyptian_deities" title="Ancient Egyptian deities">deity</a> of air and the husband of <a href="Tefnut" title="Tefnut">Tefnut</a>, goddess of moisture. He became an emblem of strength by virtue of his role in separating <a href="Nut_(goddess)" title="Nut (goddess)">Nut</a> from <a href="Geb" title="Geb">Geb</a>. Shu played a primary role in the <a href="Coffin_Texts" title="Coffin Texts">Coffin Texts</a>, which were <a href="Spell_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spell (paranormal)">spells</a> intended to help the deceased reach the realm of the afterlife safely. On the way to the sky, the spirit had to travel through the air as one spell indicates: "I have gone up in Shu, I have climbed on the sunbeams."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>According to <a href="Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> beliefs, the element air is inhabited by one-sensed beings or spirits called vāyukāya <a href="Ekendriya" class="mw-redirect" title="Ekendriya">ekendriya</a>, sometimes said to inhabit various kinds of winds such as whirlwinds, cyclones, monsoons, west winds and trade winds. Prior to <a href="Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnating</a> into another lifeform, spirits can remain as vāyukāya ekendriya from anywhere between one instant to up to three-thousand years, depending on the <a href="Karma_in_Jainism" title="Karma in Jainism">karma</a> of the spirits.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a></li>

<li><a href="Sky_deity" title="Sky deity">Sky deity</a></li>

<li><a href="Wind_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind deity">Wind deity</a></li>

<li><a href="Gemini_(astrology)" title="Gemini (astrology)">Gemini (astrology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Aquarius_(astrology)" title="Aquarius (astrology)">Aquarius (astrology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Libra_(astrology)" title="Libra (astrology)">Libra (astrology)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="W._K._C._Guthrie" title="W. K. C. Guthrie">W. K. C. Guthrie</a>, <i>A History of Greek Philosophy</i>, vol. 1, pp. 466, 470–71.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plato, <i>Timaeus</i>, ch. 27, p. 83.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guthrie, <i>History of Greek Philosophy</i>, vol. 1, pp. 115–16, 120–32; Jonathan Barnes, <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i>, pp. 77–80.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guthrie, vol. 2, pp. 362–81; Barnes, pp. 289–94.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guthrie, vol. 2, pp. 138–46. Guthrie suggests that Hera is the safest identification for air.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plato, <i>Timaeus</i>, chap. 22–23; Gregory Vlastos, <i>Plato’s Universe</i>, pp. 66–82.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="G._E._R._Lloyd" title="G. E. R. Lloyd">G. E. R. Lloyd</a>, <i>Aristotle</i>, chapters 7–8.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Londa Schiebinger, p. 162.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Israel Regardie, <i>The Golden Dawn</i>, pp. 154–65.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Regardie, <i>Golden Dawn</i>, p.322; Kraig, <i>Modern Magick</i>, pp. 149–53.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Regardie, <i>Golden Dawn</i>, p. 80.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Regardie, <i>Golden Dawn</i>, pp. 280–286; Kraig, <i>Modern Magick</i>, pp. 206–209.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Doreen Valiente, <i>The Rebirth of Witchcraft</i>, p. 64.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Regardie, <i>Golden Dawn</i>, p. 631.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hutton, pp. 216–23; Valiente, Witchcraft for Tomorrow, p. 17.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald Michael Kraig, <i>Modern Magick</i>, p. 115.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bob Brier, <i>Ancient Egyptian Magic</i>, p.128.</span>

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFWebb" class="citation web cs1">Webb, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/jain/">"Jain Philosophy"</a>. <a href="Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFUniversity_of_Calcutta:_Department_of_Letters1921" class="citation journal cs1">University of Calcutta: Department of Letters (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BDxQAQAAMAAJ&dq=Ekendriya&pg=PA352">"Journal of the Department of Letters"</a>. <i>Journal of the Department of Letters</i>. <b>5</b>. Calcutta University Press, originally from <a href="University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>: 352.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Jonathan_Barnes" title="Jonathan Barnes">Barnes, Jonathan</a>. <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i>. London: Penguin, 1987.</li>

<li><a href="Bob_Brier" title="Bob Brier">Brier, Bob</a>. <i>Ancient Egyptian Magic</i>. New York: Quill, 1980.</li>

<li>Guthrie, W. K. C. <i>A History of Greek Philosophy</i>. 6 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962–81.</li>

<li><a href="Ronald_Hutton" title="Ronald Hutton">Hutton, Ronald</a>. <i>Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 2001.</li>

<li><a href="Donald_Michael_Kraig" title="Donald Michael Kraig">Kraig, Donald Michael</a>. <i>Modern Magick: Eleven Lessons in the High Magickal Arts</i>. St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1994.</li>

<li>Lloyd, G. E. R. <i>Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968.</li>

<li>Plato. <i>Timaeus and Critias</i>. Translated by Desmond Lee. Revised edition. London: Penguin, 1977.</li>

<li><a href="Israel_Regardie" title="Israel Regardie">Regardie, Israel</a>. <i>The Golden Dawn</i>. 6th edition. St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1990.</li>

<li><a href="Londa_Schiebinger" title="Londa Schiebinger">Schiebinger, Londa</a>. <i>The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science</i>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989.</li>

<li><a href="Doreen_Valiente" title="Doreen Valiente">Valiente, Doreen</a>. <i>Witchcraft for Tomorrow</i>. Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1978.</li>

<li>Valiente, Doreen. <i>The Rebirth of Witchcraft</i>. Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1989.</li>

<li><a href="Gregory_Vlastos" title="Gregory Vlastos">Vlastos, Gregory</a>. <i>Plato’s Universe</i>. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Scott_Cunningham" title="Scott Cunningham">Cunningham, Scott</a>. <i>Earth, Air, Fire and Water: More Techniques of Natural Magic</i>.</li>

<li><a href="Starhawk" title="Starhawk">Starhawk</a>. <i><a href="The_Spiral_Dance" title="The Spiral Dance">The Spiral Dance</a>: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess</i>. 3rd edition. 1999.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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